Jared Chomyc
Male Body Image: The Construction of the Perfect Body in the Twentieth Century
History 4250
Dr. Tracy Penny Light
29 March 2018
Body image is a topic that men are not allowed to talk about. At least that was the common idea during most of the twentieth century. Insecurity is not something that is linked to traditional masculinity. As a result, men being concerned with the look of their bodies was not accepted. With this in mind, it is easy to see how many men were under pressure when Pumping Iron was first released. Men saw this as further evidence to the fact that to achieve true masculinity, they must be strong and fit. This film brought body building to the forefront and it also helped to increase body dissatisfaction in many men. In order to fully understand how men have coped with their growing dissatisfaction in body image, there are three primary areas to examine. First, the historiography of how a man should look and how that culminated in the documentary Pumping Iron. Secondly, the way in which boys and young men are influenced by marketing and media and how this can lead to unhealthy behaviour. Finally, the way in which men and women have struggled with body image. The only way to fully understand how men became so dissatisfied with their bodies is to start with the beginning, in this case that means the start of the twentieth century.
The roaring twenties were a tumultuous period in history. As a result, the twenties helped to develop traditional ideas of how a man should look. In Cynthia Comacchio’s article, she highlights how many young men during this time period became “objects of study”[1]. In the time period Comacchio is studying, there was a growing emphasis on “’manliness’”[2]. Furthermore, adults were concerned with young boys achieving “physical strength and dominance”[3]. Comacchio’s article shows exactly how men are taught from a young age, that there is a link between body image and being a man. It also shows how long men having been struggling with body dissatisfaction. If these issues began to formulate in the twenties, then they had over fifty years to ruminate and reach a breaking point when Pumping Iron was released in 1977. Lynne Luciano shares this outlook when she states that “the 1970’s represent the locus of change”[4]. Furthermore, Luciano states that the 70’s had less of a focus on physical health and more of an emphasis on “’looking good’”[5]. This shows how men were inclined not to pursue exercise as a means to bolster their physical health, instead they used weight lifting and other exercise as a way of fitting a societal ideal. Men are intrinsically linked to society’s ideas of how they should look and this is exemplified in the 70’s when there was a focus on “masculine power through muscularity and on developing strength and vigor through exercise”[6]. These two articles, help build a framework for the ways in which men have become obsessed with their physical appearance. Comacchio shows how in the early stages of the twenties, boys were being forced into society’s ideas of how the male body should look. Luciano takes the idea of male body image and shows how the 70’s saw an increasing interest in “bodybuilding and weight-lifting”[7], which was no doubt aided by the release of Arnold Schwarzenegger’s documentary Pumping Iron.
The documentary Pumping Iron became so popular, that Arnold Schwarzenegger was able to launch a career in film after it’s release. As a result, many men became obsessed with making their bodies look like Arnold’s. The documentary presented men with a new way of viewing their bodies. Now not only would a man need to display physical strength, but they would also have to look the part. In this case, it meant putting on hundreds of pounds of muscle. For a lot of young men this meant the use of anabolic steroids. At one point in the documentary Arnold comments on how he wants to ensure that “everything is perfect”[8] in regards to his body. The term “perfect”[9] suggests that his body is something to aspire to and as a result it left many men feeling dissatisfied with how they look. Furthermore, the film presents many young men who are looking up to Arnold. One of the up and coming body builders goes as far as to say “That’s the way I want to look”[10]. This young man is a great example of how many men were feeling, although he is already in good shape, he is seeking to associate himself with the idea of a body without flaws. In the film, Arnold also explains how bodybuilding is a way of “judging the body by muscularity and proportion”[11]. This shows the common attitude of Arnold and many bodybuilders at this time. There is a sense that men’s bodies are constantly being judged by their muscular physique. By extension, any man with a less than ideal muscle mass, will feel unhappy with how they look. The ideal body mass and image, is also personified by Reid Schindle, the man who won the 1979 Mr. Canada competition. An article published in Maclean’s, gives precise measurements for an ideal body, going as far as to say having these measurements would be a “reward”[12] to any man. Furthermore, Schindle himself comments on how a man that he admired had a “’chest that was absolutely massive’”[13] and how Schindle wanted to “’look like that one day’”[14]. Schindle’s comments are important, because they demonstrate the thought process of many young boys and how they can be influenced from a young age, specifically in regards to masculinity and body image. The aftermath of Pumping Iron, resulted in a widespread interest in gyms and physical health. At the same time, the film inspired research into why men feel insecure about their body image.
During the 1980’s there was a surge of interest in becoming physically fit. Which was undoubtedly influenced by Pumping Iron and the long standing ideals of traditional masculinity. In a CBC clip the Peter Mansbridge comments on how “business at health clubs has never been more robust”[15]. What also comes with this renewed interest in fitness, is a renewed interest in the body as a reflection of masculinity. In the article published by Mishkind and his colleagues, they focus on how men “change their physical appearance and come closer to the masculine ideal”[16]. These two sources help to provide a start for the overall interest in the relationship between men and body image. In the same article they comment on how a study they conducted showed that “95%”[17] of men in college were dissatisfied with “some aspect of their bodies”[18]. The study goes on to say that the specific areas that men have an issue with are their “chest, weight and waist”[19]. This quote highlights how men during the eighties were dissatisfied with either their extra weight or the muscularity of their bodies. This was no doubt influenced by the 1977 documentary Pumping Iron. It would be different if men were concerned with losing weight but the Mishkind et al. article suggest that men are also concerned with their “arms”[20] and also their “shoulders”[21], which leads towards the idea that men are concerned with muscle mass in this area. Furthermore, an overwhelming amount of men wanted to have a “muscular mesomorphic”[22] body type or more commonly known as the “’muscleman’”[23]. This type of body is characterized by “well-developed chest and arm muscles”[24] and a “narrow waist”[25]. This makes sense, as it lines up with the typical V-shape body, that bodybuilders of the time promoted. From these statistics, it is easy to see how man men were becoming dissatisfied with their appearance. The average man was struggling to meet the ideals of his time period and as a result, a larger amount of men were reporting body dissatisfaction. In addition, men were concerned that not having the ideal body type, would lead to losing out on the “benefits”[26] that muscular men had available to them. The frightening reality is that this is not an idea that is trapped inside the mind of men. Instead, there is a large amount of evidence that supports the fact that “physical appearance is so important generally in our society”[27]. Furthermore, there is evidence that muscular men have the highest rate of benefits in society. Mishkind et al. suggest that this is because muscular men are intrinsically linked to “cultural views of masculinity and the male sex role”[28]. This idea harkens back to Comacchio’s work, that emphasized the strong man’s important role in society. Also, the idea that a muscular man can do better sexually and with interpersonal relationships, is extremely intimidating for the average man and any young boy growing up. This suggests that only the “hunk of man”[29] that Ferrigno’s father comments on, can be successful both sexually and within interpersonal relationships. A muscular man is also characterized as “self-confident, and unemotional”[30], which is precisely the type of thinking, that put men in the situation they have been apart of since the 1920’s. At this point in history, men have been taught that the strong, confident man does not show any sign of emotion. Specifically, body image issues would not be discussed as women are the sex that should be “concerned with their appearance”[31] not men. This attitude towards body image, would lead to the massive amount of research that has been put forth since the 1980’s. Mishkind et al. also state that men in the 1980’s are feeling more dissatisfied with their bodies “than they did even two decades ago”[32]. This could also be a result of men being aware of the fact that “the burden of illness has shifted from infectious diseases to cardiovascular disorders”[33] and how many of these can be prevented “through behaviour change”[34]. So in this way, men could exercise and possibly prevent heart disease, also exercising may have been a way for men to contest the illness they are supposedly a part of. The research of Mishkind et al. and others during the late seventies and throughout the eighties, helped to foster the amazing amount of research that was put forth in the nineties. Specifically, to do with male body image in young men and also the relationship between male body image and female body image.
The nineties were an everchanging time and as a result, male body image was beginning to be studied and examined in depth. The growth of healthism and the move towards a new millennium, was no doubt influential in this growing interest. As Harrison G. Pope and his colleagues highlight “a growing body of literature has described disorders of body image among men”[35]. Their article talks about a new term called “muscle dysmorphia”[36] which is described as “an obsessional preoccupation with their muscularity”[37]. Pope et al. even goes as far as to say that this disorder can lead to men ignoring “important social and family relationships”[38] so that they can achieve their perfect body type. Furthermore, Pope et al. comment on how men are constantly being exposed to “muscular male images”[39] in all of their media which include “magazines”[40] and “motion pictures”[41]. All of this research by Pope et al. suggests that they are deeply in tune with the social and cultural realities of the 1990’s. Furthermore, they are clearly aware of the growing distance between how a man looks and how he feels he should look. Pope et al. choose to focus their study specifically on young boys and how their idea of the ideal male body image are influenced by “action toys”[42].
In order for Pope et al. to prove their point they purchased action figures “over a period of 20 years”[43]. They did this in a hope to prove how young boys were being shown what a man should look like from a young age. What they found was that “the earliest figure had no visible abdominal muscles”[44]. Whereas, the contemporary example had the “sharply rippled abdominals of an advanced bodybuilder”[45]. Furthermore, they also found that many of the new figures had “serratus muscles along his ribs”[46] which are seen in “bodybuilders but less often visible in ordinary men”[47]. All this evidence shows how society has shifted it’s ideas around men and their ideal body image. The old action figures had little to no muscle mass whereas, the new figures if adjusted to a normal size man, would have “larger biceps than any bodybuilder in history”[48]. This study is also not naïve about how “boyhood exposure to muscular ideals”[49] is not the only factor that could lead to the development of male body image in men. However, as the article says “the impact of toys should not be underestimated”[50]. Pope et al. are on the right track, because they understand that although action figures are only one aspect for a growing disorder among men, they are nonetheless very important in showing how young boys can be influenced by their society. This article also touches on how many young men use anabolic steroids to enhance their bodies. Which is also the subject of the article that Drewnowski et al. published in 1994.
One of the more disturbing realities of an increase in dissatisfaction with the male body, is that many young men turn to steroid use in order to put on muscle mass. The various health risks that are associated with steroid use, are enough to make it a serious concern that so many young men have turned to using steroids in everyday life. In Pope et al. they highlight how many young men who were insecure about their body image would “use anabolic steroids or other performance enhancing drugs”[51]. Similarly, in the Drewnowski et al. article they comment on how “concerns with body image might predispose young men to use anabolic steroids”[52]. This shows a growing use of steroids among men from the ages of 18-25. At this point, it is next to impossible to deny the effect that media and the documentary Pumping Iron has had on the successive generations of young men. Furthermore, Drewnowski et al. conducted a study that showed “40%”[53] of young men “wished to weight more than their current weight”[54]. Their study contributed this need to bulk up on the “media emphasis on muscular build”[55]. As a result of the media’s influence to male body image there has also been an increase in “the use of anabolic steroids”[56]. The sad fact is that this study was performed in 1993, so these stats have most likely increased, since the emphasis on the muscular male body image has not gone away. At the time of the study between “3% and 12% of male high-school students had used anabolic steroids”[57]. Furthermore, a study conducted with the same age group found that “46% expressed a desire to weigh more than their current weight”[58] also “28% reported exercising weekly or more often”[59]. As a result, young men are using unhealthy means to reach a social construction of male body image. The Edwards and Launder article also comments on the relationship between “anabolic steroid use”[60]and “disturbance in body image”[61]. Edward and Launder also comment on the similarities between men and women in relation to body image. They do this by saying “underweight males suffer from poor self-image to at least the same extent as overweight females”[62]. In the same way that women suffer from bulimia and anorexia in order to lose weight, men use steroids to support their own idea of the “perfect body”[63].
Caroline Davis et al. are concerned with the appearance anxiety that has become prevalent in both young men and women. They attribute this to a growing need that society has to be “highly in tune with matters of fitness and health”[64]. The Davis et al. article shows how historically, there has always been a focus on woman and body image. They state as much when they say “studies have been directed almost entirely to female samples”[65]. This suggests the inability for men to talk about their bodies, until research became more prominent in the eighties. Davis et al. also comments on how the “increasing number of weight rooms and fitness facilities”[66] has contributed to the male muscle mass ideal. Which is similar to the idea that the CBC article put forward. Both sources directly correlate the growth of fitness centers, with the underlying idea that men are becoming more insecure about their bodies. The article also speaks to the “recreational use of anabolic steroids for enhancing muscle development”[67]. This is yet another example of a scholarly article, that is focused on how anxiety over appearance can lead to the use of steroids in young men. This idea is also present in an article published in Maclean’s in 1999, it focuses on a thirty year old man named Ralph Heighton, who is not satisfied with the way he looks. In the Maclean’s article, Heighton comments on how “’the magazines sort of force this body image on you’”[68]. He also has a very key insight into the male psyche. Heighton says “’whether we want to admit it or not, this image is what we want to look like’”[69]. At this point, Heighton is suggesting that many men may not speak publicly about their bodies. However, that does not mean that they are not facing similar issues. The article comments on “the steroid use”[70] of many young teenagers, in order to put on the muscle that they think is necessary to achieve their image of perfection. Throughout all these articles, there is a common theme of young men using steroids to fit the body image that has been presented to them through toys, media, and older generations. Up to this point the research has been focused on men. However, in order to fully understand men’s issues with body image, it is important to look at how women deal with the same issues.
Because the study of men’s body image is a relatively new field, it is beneficial to focus on how women have handled their feelings towards their bodies and self-image. Generally speaking, most of the articles acknowledge the fact that both sexes suffer from dissatisfaction with their bodies. However, many of the studies note that in some cases, women have shown more unhappiness with how they look. For example, Caroline Davis and Michael Cowles suggest that generally “women idealize and covet an ultraslender body”[71]. They go on to say that college age women want to be “thinner than they perceive themselves to be”[72]. Women’s ideal body image tends to be much thinner than what they currently weigh. Whereas, men want to gain muscle mass to fit their ideal body image. Davis and Cowles point out that fact as well when they state that “younger men”[73] want to “gain weight”[74]. At this point, the parallels between men and women are clear. Men seek to gain weight and women seek to lose it, through dieting and sometimes unhealthy disorders such as bulimia and anorexia. Jennifer L. Muth and Thomas F. Cash also comment on how women are unhappy with their weight. In their study they found that women had a “negative evaluation of their overall appearance and reported weight preoccupation”[75]. They also recognize the role that society has in shaping women’s perceived body image, when they state that “cultural norms and expectations lead girls and women to be attentive to and psychologically invested in their physical aesthetics”[76]. Similarly, Karen McDonald and J. Kevin Thompson comment on how many “women exercised more for weight control reasons than men”[77]. Generally speaking then, what can be determined through this evidence, is that most women are seeking to lose weight because of pressure from marketing, media and societal influences. The last thing these articles discuss is the crossover that men and women have in regards to body image ideals.
After this research, it should be obvious that men and women have very different ideas about how their bodies should look. However, there are similarities in the fact that both men and women have these issues. Davis and Cowles point out that “80% in each group reported a desire to change their current weight”[78]. Also, McDonald and Thomson illustrate that “exercising for weight, tone, and, to a lesser degree, for attractiveness reasons is positively connected to eating disturbance and body image dissatisfaction for both genders”[79]. Furthermore, in the study conducted by Michael A. Friedman et al. they found that “marital discord is significantly related to body image disturbance”[80]. They also state that “a poor body image may result in sexual difficulties or avoidance of social situations”[81]. All this evidence, supports how both men and women struggle with maintaining a body image ideal, that is forced upon them by society. Furthermore, body image dissatisfaction can lead to troubles within a marriage, as one partner may feel uncomfortable about how they look. This can lead to sexual frustration, social anxiety and potentially even divorce. However, the fact that these studies are being performed, means that humanity is looking for a way to fix the unrealistic standards that have been put onto both men and women. Finally, after the vast history of how men wound up feeling so anxious and unhappy with how they look, it is important to look at a more modern example to see if these ideals have changed.
The final article that speaks about male body image in a more modern sense, is Ellexis Boyle’s article about one of Arnold Schwarzenegger’s books. In this way, history has come full circle to again reflect on the self-made man, that was the subject of the documentary Pumping Iron. In the article, Boyle comments on how Arnold promoted an idea of “masculine physical perfection”[82]. Boyle also states that Arnold’s influence helped society in “consuming male bodies in ways similar to the objectification of women”[83]. Which is probably the most important quote so far, as it shows exactly how men have come to form their ideas about body image. Furthermore, Boyle’s comments also help to solidify the idea that men and women are being objectified publicly in the same way. Both men and women are currently suffering from an inability to negotiate with how they view themselves. Unfortunately, although the means by which many celebrities and athletes achieve these bodies, are not necessarily unhealthy, the way that they are marketed, leads to a reality wherein many men are dissatisfied with how they look.
In conclusion, men are still struggling with how to deal with body image and how modern society defines that idea. However, men have come a long way from the stoicism of the early twenties. The emergence of bodybuilding in the late seventies and then the numerous amount of research that came as a result is extremely positive. Because of this renewed interest in male body image, many studies were conducted in the nineties that led to a new focus on male adolescents struggling with anxiety and how to define themselves as men. Furthermore, there was a new interest in how men and women differed in their approach to exercise and how they looked at body image ideals. These studies conducted in the nineties, also shed a light on male steroid use as a result of young men trying to fit in. Overall, the struggle for men to define what their body should look like is not over yet. However, today there is more emphasis on the subject of men and their bodies than ever before. As a result, hopefully men of all ages can learn to put more effort into staying healthy and less effort into achieving a social construction of what the male body should look like.
[1] Cynthia Comacchio, “The Rising Generation: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents in English Canada, 1920-70,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 19, (2002): 142.
[2] Cynthia Comacchio, “The Rising Generation: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents in English Canada, 1920-70,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 19, (2002): 142.
[3] Cynthia Comacchio, “The Rising Generation: Laying Claim to the Health of Adolescents in English Canada, 1920-70,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 19, (2002): 142.
[4] Lynne Luciano, “Looking Good: A Social History of Male Body Image in Postwar America, 1950-1990” (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1997), 7.
[5] Lynne Luciano, “Looking Good: A Social History of Male Body Image in Postwar America, 1950-1990” (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1997), 1.
[6] Lynne Luciano, “Looking Good: A Social History of Male Body Image in Postwar America, 1950-1990” (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1997), 18.
[7] Lynne Luciano, “Looking Good: A Social History of Male Body Image in Postwar America, 1950-1990” (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1997), 18.
[8] Pumping Iron, Directed by George Butler and Robert Fiore (1977; San Francisco, CA: Warner Home Video, 2002), DVD.
[9] Pumping Iron, Directed by George Butler and Robert Fiore (1977; San Francisco, CA: Warner Home Video, 2002), DVD.
[10] Pumping Iron, Directed by George Butler and Robert Fiore (1977; San Francisco, CA: Warner Home Video, 2002), DVD.
[11] Pumping Iron, Directed by George Butler and Robert Fiore (1977; San Francisco, CA: Warner Home Video, 2002), DVD.
[12] Peter Carlyle-Gordge, “Being Mr. Canada is Not Quite Enough,” Maclean’s, January 22, 1979, 6.
[13] Peter Carlyle-Gordge, “Being Mr. Canada is Not Quite Enough,” Maclean’s, January 22, 1979, 6.
[14] Peter Carlyle-Gordge, “Being Mr. Canada is Not Quite Enough,” Maclean’s, January 22, 1979, 6
[15] Peter Mansbridge, Fitness Craze Sweeps the Nation. Television, 2:07. February 25, 1984. http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/fitness-craze-sweeps-the-nation.
[16] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 546.
[17] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 546.
[18] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 546.
[19] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 546.
[20] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 546.
[21] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 546.
[22] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 547.
[23] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 547.
[24] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 547.
[25] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 547.
[26] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 547.
[27] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 547.
[28] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 549.
[29] Pumping Iron, Directed by George Butler and Robert Fiore (1977; San Francisco, CA: Warner Home Video, 2002), DVD.
[30] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 549.
[31] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 545.
[32] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 554.
[33] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 555.
[34] Marc E. Mishkind, et al. “The Embodiment of Masculinity,” American Behavioural Scientist 29, no.5 (May/June 1986): 555.
[35] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[36] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 66.
[37] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[38] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[39] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[40] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[41] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[42] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 65.
[43] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 67.
[44] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 67.
[45] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 67.
[46] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 67.
[47] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 67.
[48] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 68.
[49] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 71.
[50] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 71.
[51] Harrison G. Pope, Jr, et al. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26, (May 1998): 66.
[52] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[53] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[54] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[55] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[56] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[57] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[58] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 385.
[59] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 385.
[60] Stephen Edwards and Catherine Launder, “Investigating Muscularity Concerns in Male Body Image: Development of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 28, (2000): 120.
[61] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[62] Adam Drewnowski, et al. “Effects of Body Image on Dieting, Exercise, and Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescent Males,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 17, no.4 (1995): 382.
[63] Caroline Davis, et al. “A Study of Appearance Anxiety in Young Men,” Social Behavior and Personality 21, no.1 (1993): 64.
[64] Caroline Davis, et al. “A Study of Appearance Anxiety in Young Men,” Social Behavior and Personality 21, no.1 (1993): 64.
[65] Caroline Davis, et al. “A Study of Appearance Anxiety in Young Men,” Social Behavior and Personality 21, no.1 (1993): 64.
[66] Caroline Davis, et al. “A Study of Appearance Anxiety in Young Men,” Social Behavior and Personality 21, no.1 (1993): 71.
[67]Caroline Davis, et al. “A Study of Appearance Anxiety in Young Men,” Social Behavior and Personality 21, no.1 (1993): 64.
[68] Susan McClelland, “The Lure of the Body Image,” Maclean’s, February 22, 1999, 38.
[69] Susan McClelland, “The Lure of the Body Image,” Maclean’s, February 22, 1999, 38.
[70] Susan McClelland, “The Lure of the Body Image,” Maclean’s, February 22, 1999, 38.
[71] Caroline Davis and Michael Cowles, “Body Image and Exercise: A Study of Relationships and Comparisons Between Physically Active Men and Women,” Sex Roles 25 no.1/2 (1991): 34.
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